Exam Review @N........

METHODS OF COOKING - 3 Methods- 1) Dry - Baking, broiling.

2) Wet - Boiling, Steaming, Poaching, Stewing, Braising, Poeling, Blanching.

3) Medium of fat/Oil - Sauteing, deep frying, shallow frying, roasting, grilling, etc.

 

               These are various methods by which foods are cooked.

WET   METHOD

#   BOILING METHOD – Boiling is the method in which food materials are totally immersed in a liquid. This is the simplest method of cooking which involves milk or water medium.

‘      ‘It is the method of cooking in which the liquid is being  boiled to its boiling point and the food materials are cooked in it’.  e.g- Boiling rice, boiled vegetables etc.

--The Boiling temperature is 100degree celsius.

      Principles of boiling – The food items should be completely immersed throughout the process.

2)  Scum that arises during the boiling must be removed so that it should not discolour and spoil the taste of food.

3) Fast boiling should be done to the green vegetables as it preserves the green colour and prevents from excessive loss of vitamins and minerals of  vegetables .

4) Vegetables and other non-veg materials should be immersed gently in stocks, sauces and soups so that it retains the flavour of materials for longer time.

5) This method is usually used for tougher and stronger food products to tenderises the product as for example - rice, daal, egg, meats etc..

5) Boiling is also done to remove strong flavour from certain vegetables.

6) It is done to soften the food product.

7) It is done to extract excessive starch from potatoes  and other vegetables, etc.

8) Boiling is done to reduce the cooking time also.

9) Boiling can be done in kettle or brat pans, degchi etc.

           

     Care and precautions for boiling – While cooking, safety and precautions should be taken to avoid any incident in kitchen. On reaching the boiling point, the flame should be lowered and the container should be covered to ensure the saving of fuel.

2) The food items should be transferred into boiling water carefully to reduce the chance of an accident.

3) The container should always be covered throughout the process. This will ensure the process of condensation and vapour will not escape out.

4) Drain the water carefully and nicely on the time so that it should not absorb extra moisture.

     Selection of food for boiling - The food materials should be covered with its thick or thin skin as while boiling time like the unpeeled potatoes.

2) We should take those food items which must be rich in carbohydrates and starch.

3) Hard and soft items should be boiled in different containers or should be boiled alternately at the time of boiling, as the cooking time varies to others completely.

*   POACHING METHOD -  It is a moist cooking process in which food is gently simmered in the liquid and it is done for the  shorter time period .

            ‘ Poaching is the method of cooking in which  the liquid is boiled and then lower the temperature and the food items are cooked for a very short time.’

@ Water, milk, wine or stock  can be used for poaching.

@ Poaching takes place at a temperature below the boiling point of water as 70-96 degree Celsius approx.

@ It is a fast method of cooking food. Mainly, applicable for tender vegetables or fruits or non-veg materials as egg, fish etc.. eg. – poached egg, poached fish etc .

@ Poaching is done to retain their shape and their nutritive value of the food products.

     Principles of poaching – The food materials must contain a good percentage of protein.

2) The temperature of water should be brought down from 100 degree to 70degree Celsius.

3) The food materials which is poached is healthy for the health.

     Care and precautions to be taken for poaching – Food items should be completely immersed in the liquid.

2) As soon as the liquid with the food item begins to boil, then suddenly lower the temperature to allow poaching.

3) Poaching liquid forms the base of many sauces.

4) Food being poached should be of same size to ensure even cooking.

5) Acid medium is required for poaching, as acid hardens the proteins whereas fats and oils soften the protein.  Eg. – poached egg, poached fish, vegetable items etc

   *   BLANCHING METHOD -   Blanching method is not a direct method of cooking, as usually this is the preliminary process followed to prepare the food which would eventually undergo another method of cooking.

@ This is also called as a incomplete method as a when the commodity is brought straight from the boiling liquid and plunged into cold water is done for - to arrest(stop) the cooking, brighten the colour and preserve the nutrition of that particular materials.

@ Blanching is done for various reasons and one of them is brightening of the commodity. In this method, the food commodity is immersed in the boiling water and cooked for the required time.

@ This process is done for very short time. The food is blanched for the required time and then refreshed depending upon the type of commodity.

@ Blanching is also done to remove the skin, to remove excess salt, to remove the strong flavours, to close the pores for retaining colour and nutrients, to brighten the colour etc.

@ It is done in various equipments as – stock pot, sauce pan etc

  *  STEAMING METHOD - It is the wet method of cooking in which hot steams  are used to cook food . eg. – idly, puddings  etc.

@ Steaming is done when the food is placed in a closed pan, surrounded by plenty of steam from fast boiling water or in a steamer.

2) Steamed food is good and healthy for health .

3) Steamed foods are easily digestible also.

4) But, Green vegetables are not suitable for steaming as they easily loose the colour and nutrition value.

   *   STEWING - It is the process of cooking in which two methods are involved as boiling and simmering, to cook the food. The speciality of it, the cooked food is served along with the liquid in which it is cooked.

@ While stewing, the liquid should cover the food items.

                                                                DRY METHOD

*   ROASTING METHOD - It is the method of cooking in which oil or fat is used to cooked the food by the method of conduction and convection flow of heat. It is mainly done for meat items, poultry, game etc.  It is the process of cooking food items in an enclosed chamber with the application of fat from time to time.

@ There are various methods of roasting as- pot roasting, spit roasting, oven roasting etc.

        Principles of roasting – The dish should be marinated and kept overnight before placing for roasting.

2) The roasting should be done on the basis of charcoal fire.

3) The application of fat should be continued from time to time, avoiding burning.

4) It is suitable for prime quality of meat, game and fibrous vegetables.

5) No liquid is added to meat products only marinated with little fat, herbs and flavorings .

6) The thicker the meat, the lower should be the cooking temperature.

7) The juices comes from the roasting , used as a accompanying gravy.

       Care and precautions to be taken while roasting – The marination should be properly done in order to softness the products before roasting.

2) The tenderisation agent like beaten curd, raw papaya paste, lemon juice etc should be necessary added to the marinated mixture. Such items make the fibrous structure of the raw materials soft.

3) The items should be placed inside the oven by fixing in skewer batch by batch.

         Selection of food for roasting – The food items which have hard fibrous structure should be chosen for roasting. If it happens to be non-vegeterian item, the end product would give the best result. However, paneer cubes , hard tomatoes, capsicum, potato, onion, sweet potato  etc. also gives the good product.

@ Any food items which are soft like small fish, ladies finger, cauliflower etc. can not be put for roasting for the best result as the resistance power of such items is comparatively less.

@ Suitable for prime quality meat, poultry, game and fibrous vegetables.

@ Basting is essential to keep the roast juicy and moist.

@ Meat has to be trussed or processed before roasting.

@ Meat has to be rested after roasting.

@ Roasts are always placed on trivet of bones with mire-poix of vegetables to enhance the flavour.

@ Roasting is done on the oven by roasting tray.

    *   GRILLING – It is the prime method of cooking, where both the meats and their cuts should be of prime quality. It is the method of cooking in which oil or fat is used to cook the tough joints of meat and veg. on a griller or on tawa through contact with the hot surface.

@ This is a process of cooking of food items on a wire which is operated by the fire or either generated by charcoal or wooden log.

@ This type of cooking is performed by keeping the raw food items side by side and if necessary, changing the sides with the occasional application of fat.

    Principles of grilling – The food items should be placed side by side by allowing sufficient space for turning.

@ The food items should be marinated properly before the grilling starts, for the best result.

@ The temp. may be brought down and as per the requirement it can be increased for the purpose of getting an effective result.

@ The grilled food items should always be served with an accompaniment to increase the taste of dish.

     Care and precautions to be taken while grilling – The food items should not be grilled by following more than one process, for example half of the food items may by grilling in an electrically operated and half in manually operated equipment.

@ The marination should be completed in all respect, and advisably kept for one night in a borosil dish or an earthenware container .

@ Before placing the food items for grilling, a proper shape should be given uniformly. This is because it will help in attaining proper doneness.

@ The grilling temperature should be fluctuated only when it becomes necessary.

@ After the grilling is over, the food items should be kept in an open air in order to relax for sometime.

@ Grill bars should be cleaned and oiled regularly.

   Selection for food for grilling – The food items which are having a non-veg. origin with a fibrous texture should be selected for grilling purpose , example – grilled chicken, grilled mutton etc.

2) The veg. items selected for grilling should have a mixture of cubes of hard vegetables like potatoes, capsicum etc.

3) Items for grilling must be small in size, flattened and of top quality.

4) The food item should be oiled and seasoned properly.

5) Heat should be intense to enable sealing at once and colouring a brown crust should form, which seals the juices of the food products.

6) Grill bars should be cleaned and oiled.

7) Grilling can be done on bar griller, charcoal griller, hot plate, salamander etc.

* FRYING -It is the method of cooking in which more amount of oil or fat are used in which the ingredients are emerged. Example – French fries, croquettes,  paratha etc.

@ Frying consists of two types as – deep fat fry, shallow fry etc.

@ Frying adds the taste, crispiness and crunchy texture to the dishes.

   Principles of frying :- The temperature of the oil should not be brought to the smoking point, otherwise the smoking point of oil make the food materials burnt smell and hence to wasting the raw materials.

@ The oil or fat must be hot enough to seal the outer area of the food items, for being fried. This prevents the food materials from absorbing extra fat.

@ The frying temperature may varies from 160 degree to 190 degree Celsius.

@ Wet food materials e.g. potatoes should be well dried before being fried otherwise it may absorbs extra oil.

@ The fat used for frying should be strained and stored in a cool place for further use.

@ The fried dishes should have a uniform golden colour for good eye appeal.

@ Frying dishes must be kept first on paper so that extra oil should be absorbed by the paper.

@ Two many dishes should not be put at a time of frying as it will reduce the temperature to the frying point where the food will absorb the extra fat.

@ The fluctuation of the temperature should not be allowed otherwise the food items will destroyed.

     Selection of food for frying – Tender and good quality of food products like potato, fish, meat and poultry are generally used for frying.

@ Well dried food materials should be chosen for frying.

     Care and precautions to be taken while frying – Heat up the oil to frying temperature and don’t allow to reach the smoking point.

@ The container for frying should be chosen properly like kadhai, frying pan, sauce pan etc to avoid invalid cookery.

@ Fried the food products nicely till golden colour.

@ Do not add all food items at a time, pour one by one nicely to the heated oil to avoid burning.

   *  BAKING -  It is the dry method of cooking in which hot air is being used to cook the food products particularly in closed chamber, where the heat transfer takes place by conduction and convection method.

Baking is a cooking principle which is applied to different method of cooking. This is carried out in a conventional  oven where the food is cooked by dry heat and sometime moisture available in the food is act as a steam.

    Principles of cooking – Food is baked in an oven on trays and seldom covered.

@ The oven must be pre-heated before the baking goods are placed inside.

@ The baking goods need to be fresh and stored for longer.

@ It should be done in an enclosed chamber under the process of convection.

@ There should not be any disturbance created to the food items once the baking process start that may create a negative impact on the body of the food items .

@ The fluctuation of the temperature should controlled otherwise product may be under or over-baked.

    Care and precautions to be taken while baking – The oven should have the correct temperature according to the baked food items.

@ The food materials should be placed in the right position in the oven.

@ The oven should be fixed with a stabilizer in order to prevent any incident such as over voltage, low voltage.

@ Proper cleaning should be done on regular basis in order to remove any obstruction that might takes place due to deposition of food particles in an oven.

@ The door of the oven should be closed once the operation started.

@ After the use of oven is complete, the door should be kept open for the sometime to allow air circulation and to maintain freshness inside the oven.

   Selection of food for baking – The food materials should be dry or having less moisture.

@ The food materials should not loose their shape while undergoing the process of baking.

@ Various types of equipments are used for baking as- baking trays, baking moulds, ovens etc.

  *   BROILING – It is the dry method of cooking in which ingredients are heated directly contact to the hot surface. It could be done by sources of heat above or below. It is the dry method and can be done on a grid or iron bars, where the food is cooked uncovered.

@ The griller is oiled slightly to prevent sticking.

Principles of broiling – Dry cooking is mainly done as - beaf steak, chicken steak.

@ Tawa, griller or pan may be oiled slightly to prevent sticking.

@ Constant stirring should takes place to avoid burning.

@ The flame should be low while broiling for proper cooking.

Care and precautions to be taken while broiling – A flat container, advisably made of iron should be used to get the best result. The broiled dish should be sprinkled from the top as garnish. They can also be used as a main flavour giving ingredients with the other spices during the process of cooking.

Selection of food for broiling – The food materials which do not have a natural flavour should not be chosen for this purpose.

@ Tenderest and most expensive cuts of beef and fish are most often broiled.

@ It is advisable to choose a charcoal fire to broil the food items on a flat iron container to give a good result.

  *  SAUTEING -  It is the method of cooking in which little or small amount of oil or fat is used and ingredients are cooked for a very short time as for 2-3 minutes so that colour of food materials may not change.

@ In this method, foods are cooked rapidly.

@ No liquid is added to the food until it is removed from the pan.



STOCK 

 “Stock is a basic foundation liquid of prepairing the dishes from soup to sauces, curries to gravies etc. A good, well flavoured stock cannot be made with inferior ingredients for that it requires good quality of materials. It can be a simple defined as a- stock, a liquid which has been simmered for a long time in order to extract flavour and taste from the ingredients used.  Water is a liquid medium. Stock is usually made from bones and vegetables. Different stocks requires different time to make.  As fish is a delicate commodity so this stock is only simmered for 20 min. Chicken stock takes time 3-4 hours to extract the juices nicely. Whereas, beef, lamb , mutton takes too much times upto 6-8 hours to complete.

As bones are porous in nature and hence, prolonged amount of cooking at lower temperature is required. Whereas , vegetables are again soft in nature so it requires only about 45 mins  to avoid the taste of bitterness and cloudy colour.

Stocks are nutritious, aromatic, strongly flavoured liquids. Boiling would also make the stock cloudy. A clear stock would give a nice visual appeal to the dishes. Stock are the foundation of many important kitchen preparations “ A stock should be flavour enough to allow it for easy identification but the flavour should not be overpowering to mask the real flavour of the stock”.

TYPES OF STOCK –  Veg stock and non-veg stock(white stock and brown stock).

$ Vegetable stock – It includes roughly chopped root vegetables, flavouring herbs and spices. It also includes few vegetables as mire-poix to enhance the flavour of our dishes. Before using all these materials, we should wash it nicely. Then keep it into cold water, and leave it on simmer temperature for about an hour for further cooking.

£ White stock – It includes fish bones as in fish trimmings, roughly chopped root vegetables, whole spices and herbs. The fish bones, skin, head and other trimmings with water or milk and water. Both white and brown stocks are made from bones and vegetables. Firstly take the bones pieces and remove the fat and bone marrow. Place the bones in the stock pot, cover with cold water and bring to boil and then lower the temperature. Skim as and when required and simmer gently. After few minutes, add mire-poix, blackpepper corn and bouquet garni. Simmer for few hours. Strain and cool it and store into freeze.

£ Brown stock - Take the bones and browned or roast well on all sides of bones. Drain off fat and place the bones in a stockpot. Add the cold water, bring to boil and skim. Simmer for 2 hours. Add mire poix , fry in a pan with little oil or fat until brown, strain and add to bones, Add boquet garni and peppercorns to enhance the flavour. Simmer for 6-7 hours. Skim and strain. Cool it and store into refrigerator for further use.

Some of the points should be kept in mind while prepairing and about storing ,uses, care and precautions : –

1)      Fat should be removed from the bones before putting into water, otherwise taste will become greasy.

2)      The temperature of water should be simmering.

3)      Scum should be removed regularly otherwise, it will boil into the stock and spoil the colour and flavour..

4)      Stock should be store in refrigerator for longer use below at 5degree celsius.

5)      Do not allow the fat to be deposited on the top.

6)      Bone marrow should be removed from the bones before putting into the water

7)      Bouquet garni should be immersed at the right time and for the certain period of time to enhance the flavour.

8)      Salt should not be added to the stock.

9)      When complete, strain the stock for further use and keep it.

10)   Ideally, stocks should be made fresh, and if not used the same day, chilled rapidly and stored hygienically under refrigeration.

Emergency stock – it simply indicates hot water or pot liquor(water in which vegs. are boiled) which can be used at any stage at any time.

 TERMS RELATED TO STOCK –

BROTH – It is called as Bouillon in French, it is a result of poaching meat or vegetables in water flavoured with different herbs.

COURT – BOUILLON – Water boiled with seasonings and flavourings with an acidic medium, such as lemon juice or wine is called as court bouillon in which different vegetables or meat, flesh are used to poach.

SAUCES :

Sauce is a thick food item, liquid in nature, made from a mixture of different food products as refined flour, butter and milk. It is made to give proper structure to the classical food items in French style. There are six basic sauces which are made by using THICKENING AGENT called roux. Roux are of 3 types as – White, blond, and brown roux. White roux is used for white sauce. Blonde roux is made for making veloute sauce and brown roux is made for making brown sauce.

Sauces are liquid and semi-liquid of mixture. A good sense of smell and a delicate taste and proper mixing gives a perfect sauce. It is said that “the sauce is to culinary art.” what is to language.

A perfect sauce has a colourful appearance, is glowing in it’s rich smoothness with its perfect taste, it’s texture is that of velvet and it has a definite taste. It has a natural flavour and completes the food items as it accompanies. It provides moisture, colour and shine to the food items. A keen sense of smell, delicate sense of taste, a good hand for blending contribute to perfect sauce making.

                                     

THE STRUCTURE OF SAUCES

The major sauces we consider here are made by combining three kinds of ingredients.

1.      A liquid, the body of the sauce

2.      A thickening agent and,

3.      Additional seasoning and flavouring ingredients

Liquid A liquid ingredient provides the body or base of most sauces. Most classic sauces are built on one of five liquids or bases. The resulting sauces are called leading sauces or mother sauces.

Thickening Agents A sauce must be thick enough to cling lightly to the food. Otherwise, it will just run off and lie in a puddle in the plate.

Other Flavouring Ingredients although the liquid that makes up the bulk of the sauce provides the basic flavour, other ingredients are added to make variations on the basic themes and to give a finished character to the sauces.

There are varieties of thickening agent used for different cuisines. Thickening agents are used to thicken the different dishes as – soup, sauces, curries, gravies etc.

Different cuisines of the world having different types of thickening agent. These  agent not only thicken the dishes but also enhance the taste, colour, flavour of the dish.

Some examples of thickening agents which are used for making sauces are –

THICKENING AGENTS

1.      Roux is a cooked mixture of fat and flour, measured in equal parts by weight.

There are three basic types of roux, each contain the same basic ingredients but differ in coloration which is a result of the cooking process.  The darker the roux the longer it has been cooked

·         White Roux

·         Blond Roux

·         Brown Roux

PROCEDURE For making roux:

·         Heat/melt the fat over a low heat.

·         Add the flour all at a time.

·         Stir constantly until desired color is reached.

2.      BEURRE MANIE :-

·         This is an equal mixture of Flour & Butter.

·         Kneaded together and then whisked into the liquid in small quantities,    thickening as it cooks out.

·         This is also known as a cold roux or pounded butter.

3.      STARCHES :-

·         Corn flour, Arrowroot, Potato Flour, Rice Flour & Barley Flour.

·         These are used as a thickening agent.

·         Arrowroot & cornflour are the most commonly used.

·         The starch must be mixed with cold water before adding to the hot liquid

4.      Egg yolks and Cream (LIAISON): They are used differently in different recipes. In classical cooking, a liaison is a mixture of egg yolks and cream, used to enrich and lightly thicken a sauce or other liquid. Egg yolks have the power to thicken a sauce slightly due to the coagulation of egg proteins when heated. Caution must be used when thickening with egg yolks because of the danger of curdling.

5.      Breadcrumbs

6.      Blood- Due to coagulation in nature, it is also used for the thickening purpose. And gives a different flavour.

7.      Agar agar: seaweed

8.      Gelatine

9.      Curd

10.    Gramflour

11.    Cream

12.    Boiled Potatoes etc.

13.    Corn flour – Mainly use in Chinese cuisine for thicken the dishes.

14.   Starch – some vegetables when cooked, itself releases the starch which act   as thickening agent.

Classification of sauces :

A ). Sauces can be classified as under :- French classical mother sauces :

1.    White sauce or Bechamel : Hot sauce and vegetarian origin.

2.    Brown sauce or Espagnole : Hot sauce and non-vegeterian origin.

3.    Hollandaise sauce : Hot sauce and non-vegeterian origin.

4.    Tomato sauce : Hot sauce and vegetarian origin.

5.    Mayonnaise sauce : Cold sauce and non-vegetarian origin.

6.    Veloute sauce : Hot sauce and non-vegeterian origin.

B). Proprietary sauce – The sauces which are readymade and available in the market for sell. Many of such sauces are classical and secret recipes have been handed over from generation to generation. These sauces are industry made.

 • Soya sauce

• Worcestershire sauce

• H.P. Sauce

• Barbeque Sauce

• Ketchup etc.

C. Compound sauces :- The sauce which do not fall under the category of basic sauces. They are Compound sauce as-

1.    Bread sauce     2. Jam sauce    3. Mint sauce    4.Butter sauce   5.Chocolate sauce   6. Apple sauce etc.

Recipes of mother sauces : - Six mother sauces are –

1.    White sauce(Bechamel) – This sauce is named after Louis de Bechamel. It is prepared with white roux and mildly flavoured with onion, bayleaf, cloves and nutmeg powder.

Ingredients :– Refined flour – 90gm, butter- 90gm, milk-1lit., onion studded with clove and bayleaf – 125gm

Method – Bring milk to boil with studded onion and set aside.

-       Melt butter in a thick bottomed pan.

-       Add flour, stir and cook the roux over a gentle fire without colouring till it gets sandy texture. Pour the milk into the roux stirring with a wooden spoon to avoid lumps. Simmer gently for half an hour. Remove the studded onion with  cloves and pass through strainer,

-       Cover the sauce with butter to prevent the formation of skin.

-       Now the sauce is ready to serve.

2.    Brown sauce or Espagnole sauce – Espagnole means Spanish. It is made from brown roux and the glaze of brown stock. It is one of the most wildly used sauce and it is commonly used for making different derivative from this sauce. Demi glaze is the derivative of this sauce.

Ingredients :– (For 1 lit.) Fat-60gm, r.flour-50gm, tomato puree-30gm, brown stock-1.25lit., mire-poix-70gm, fresh pork or bacon-30gm, parsley,celery,bayleaf-3gm

Method – Firstly prepare brown roux in a heavy bottom container and cool it.

-       Add tomato puree , stir continuously to avoid lumps.

-       Gradually mix in a hot stock, stirring vigorously to blend well and cook on a gentle fire.

-       Sauté the mire-poix in fat and add then sautéd non-veg products as bones to the sauce.

-       Simmer gently for 4-6hours.

-       Remove the scum when it comes to the top. Strain and cover with a thin layer of butter.

Note- Overbrowning should be avoided as this tends to make the sauce taste bitter.

3.    Hollandaise sauce :– It is a warm yellow and rich sauce. It contains a high percentage of fat and egg yolk. It is an emulsion of butter, lemon juice and egg yolk. It is served with grilled or poached fish, egg and vegetables. It is also served as an accompaniment to the grilled vegetables as asparagus, cauliflower, broccoli, salmon etc. It is thickened with the emulsifications of a

warm sabayan of egg yolk with the melted clarified butter.

Recipe- Butter-200gm, egg yolk-2nos., Crushed peppercorn-5nos., Vinegar-15ml salt-to taste

Method- Firstly melt butter in a pan and keep aside.

-       Placed crushed peppercorns and vinegar in a pan and reduce.

-       Add one tablespoon of water and let it cool. Add yolk and whisk.

-       Place the pan in a double boiler and whisk the egg yolk till it thicken. Then gradually add the melted butter till it gets blended and forms a smooth sauce. Add lemon juice. Store at a cool place and served with the related dishes.

4.    Veloute sauce :– This sauce is a basic mother sauce made from blond(light) roux. Veloute gets its name from the type of stock used, e.g- fish stock, blond roux makes fish veloute same as in chicken veloute also. Allemande, Normande, Supreme is the derivatives of this sauce. Veloute means velvet.

Recipe- Butter-90gm, R.flour-90gm, Stock-1lit., Mushroom trimmings-25gm

Method- In a thick bottomed pan, prepare blond roux.

-       Add cold stock, stir vigorously to avoid lumps.

-       Add mushroom trimmings.

-       Simmer gently for 1 hour, stir frequently with a wooden spoon.

-       Pass through a fine strainer and cover with butter to prevent the formation of skin.

-       This sauce should be cooked for 20min. only and wine should be added at later stage.

5.    Mayonnaise Sauce :– It is a basic cold sauce.  It is used for salad dressing and as a accompaniment also. It has a wide variety of uses, particularly in hors de oeuvre and salads. It is a very rich sauce and is made with egg yolk and high percentage of fat or butter with vinegar.

Ingredients - Salad oil-1lit., Egg yolk-8nos. French mustard-1/4tsp, Vinegar-25ml, Seasoning-To taste.

Method- Place yolk of an eggs, vinegar & add seaoning  in a clean dry bowl and whisk well.

-       Add oil slowly, a little at a time, whisking continuously till all the oil is incorporated.

-       Finish the sauce by adding lemon juice.

-       This sauce is suitable for serving with cold dish as fish, meat products etc or as a dipping sauce for snacks.

Notes- In the event of curdling of the sauce, add vinegar to rectify. If still it doesn’t bind , add 1tsp of warm water and  whisk well. 

6.      TOMATO SAUCE – The traditional French tomato sauce is thickened with a brown roux. However, tomato sauce is more commonly associated with Italian cuisine, and particularly used  as an accompaniment for pasta. The traditional French recipe included pork, tomato concasse, tomato puree, vegetables and seasonings that are thickened with roux.

Ingredients- Butter-70gm, R.flour-80gm, mire-poix-80gm, bayleaf-1-2nos. Garlic crushed-2-3nos., Tomato puree-100gm, Tomatoes chopped-50gm, Brown stock-450ml, Sugar-10gm,Salt-To taste.

METHOD- FIRSTLY, DO ALL THE MISE-EN.

-       BLANCH THE TOMATOES, DESKIN IT THEN STRAIN THE WATER & KEEP IT ASIDE.

-       CHOP THE TOMATOES PULP FINELY.

-       THEN TAKE A PAN, MELT BUTTER ,ADD BAYLEAF, BLACK PEPPER WHOLE ,ADD FINELY CHOP MIRE-POIX AS CARROT,ONION,GARLIC,LEEK,CELEERY & BROWNED IT ,TILL THE FLAVOUR COMES.

-       THEN ADD CHOPPED TOMATOES & COOK. ADD ITS OWN STRAINED WATER INTO IT .

-       ADD TOMATO PUREE,IF REQUIRES & COOK ON MEDIUM TEMPERATURE.

-       ADD SALT & PEPPER POWDER. LITTLE SUGAR CAN ALSO BE ADDED.

-       CHECK THE SEASONING.

-       Serve hot

Making of a good sauce – Always use good quality of stock to make sauces as the chicken sauce should be only made with  chicken stock and so on.

-The sauce should be smooth and glossy.

-Never allow to form a skin over the sauce as this will result in lumps. To avoid the formation of skin, finished the sauce with butter.

-Cook the sauce for a longer time, this would intensify the flavor in it and  also provide the gloss to the sauce.

- Always seasoned the sauce in last, as the reduction of sauce will result in a salty taste.

-Always use correct utensils for making sauce as citric sauce should not make in copper vessel, it will discolour the sauce.

-The flavor of main ingredient should stand in the sauce. Extra flavor should not be overpower the main ingredients.

-Check the seasoning before serving to the guest.

-Always cook the flour before adding to a sauce as a thickening agent, otherwise it will taste raw.

-Add liaison and cream only in end and never boil after than, curdling might takes place.

-While storing the sauces in refrigerator, keep them cool.

-Never store it for more than two days as taste will deteriorate.

Importance of SAUCES in food preparation-

1. It enhances the taste and flavour of our dishes.

2. Helps in digestion, e.g- mint sauce, apple sauce with roast pork.

3. It moisten the food as white sauce added to the dish brings creaminess to firm and      dry food.

4. Add colour to the dishes.

5. Served as an accompaniment, the sauce sometimes gives a contrast taste to another food dishes. e.g- cranberry sauce with roast turkey.

6. It sometime gives the name to the dishes, e.g Madeira wine is added to the brown sauce, called Madeira.

7. It enhances nutritional value to the dishes and balances the food.

8. It gives the perfect balance in colour appearance and taste to the dishes.

9. It gives flavour, moisture, texture and nutritional factor.

10.It add flavours to the dish and the same time it served as an accompaniment.

11. It moisten the food and easy to digest

12.It gives good eye appeal. It used to provide a contrasting colour on a plate,so, that overall appearance of the dish is enhanced and it looks like a work of art.This is one of the most important reasons as to why a sauce is served along with a dish.

13.It added texture to the food and enhance the overall experience. Normally, a starter is served alone with the sauce to provide a creamy and soft texture to the dishes.

14.The juices are collected in the pan and further addition of reduced chicken stock creates a sauce called jus roti or roast gravy. This holds true for the roasted meat. Some sauces have been commonly used with a particulare dish, that it has now become a tradition to serve that particular meat or vegetables with that particular sauce. E.g roast pork goes with apple sauce and roast turkey which is accompanied by cranberry sauce are some of the classical examples of such dishes.

Storage and precautions of making sauces :-

1.    They should be brought to the room temperature and then stored at 4 degree centigrade, otherwise, the required texture may be affected.

2.    The sauces should not be stored in one place side by side or within very short distances, otherwise, the transfer or flavor may take place. 

3.    It should be covered from the top, otherwise, the loss of flavor may take place.

4.    Individual service equipments should be used to take out the portions of different sauces, otherwise, the colour and appearance may get affected.

5.    The old batch of the sauces should be used before the new batch and freshly prepared sauces should never be mixed with the left over sauces of similar type, otherwise, the final product of the dishes would be spoilt.

6.    Seasoning should not be added from the beginning to the sauces, otherwise, at the later stage the the addition of salt and pepper powder may spoil the actual taste of the sauces.

7.    They should not be re-heated frequently, otherwise, the loss of flavour and actual taste will be lost.

8.    They should not be places near any strongly flavoured ingredients at any point of time, otherwise, an exchange of flavour will spoil the authenticity of the sauces.

9.    They should be always placed in a clean container which is made of non-reactive metal to avoid any chemical reaction.

10. The temperature fluctuation should not take place in the storage area of the sauces, otherwise, the texture and appearance of the sauces will be affected.

Some derivatives of Basic sauces are –

1.)  BECHAMEL SAUCE-

-Scotch egg                             Scotch Egg - Thin Béchamel sauce, mixed with hard-boiled yolk, sieved, garnished with white of eggs cut into strips.

Mornay                                  Mornay          -Béchamel + Parmesan and Gruyere + cream + egg yolks.

Cream            -Béchamel + fresh cream + butter.

Soubise                                   Soubise          - Béchamel + sautéed, minced onions + pepper + nutmeg and strained.

Parsley                                    Parsley           -Béchamel + fresh cream+ butter + chopped and blanched parsley.

Mustard                                 Mustard         -Béchamel + fresh cream + butter + mustard (also prepared with Hollandaise).

Anchovy                                 Anchovy       -Béchamel + anchovy essence+ anchovy fillets + cream + butter + lemon juice (also prepared with fish veloute).

Onion sauce                           Onion              -Béchamel + minced onions cooked in milk + seasoning + nutmeg.

2).  BROWN OR ESPAGNOLE SAUCE

Demi-Glaze                            Demi-glaze - 50% of brown stock + 50% (Fr. Demi-glace) of brown sauce                                           Reduced to half.

Bercy                                      Bercy          -  Demi-glaze + meat glaze + minced shallots + white wine + sliced bone marrow.

Madeira        -            Demi-glaze + Madeira wine.

Chasseur                                Chasseur      - Minced mushrooms, sautéed chopped shallots +, white wine reduced + demi-glaze + butter + chopped parsley.

Devil (Diable)                         Devil           - Chopped shallots + white wine + vinegar + Peppercorns, salt, reduced + demi-glaze strained + chopped parsley (prominent flavour of pepper).

3).CHICKEN VELOUTE

Allemande                              Allemande    - Chicken veloute + egg yolks+ mushroom trimmings + cream + juice of lemon.

Supreme                                 Supreme      - Chicken veloute + white wine + parsley + shallots + mushroom trimmings and strain. Add fresh cream + yolk of eggs + juice of lemon.

Mushroom Sauce                                          Mushroom    - Supreme + sliced button mushrooms.

Hongroise                                           Hongroise     -Chicken veloute + paprika + white wine + cream.

Ivory Sauce      - Supreme + meat glaze.

Aurore                                                Aurore               -Chicken veloute + tomato sauce + butter.

Curry sauce                                       Curry sauce      -Dices of onions + apples sautéed in butter + curry powder + coconut milk +   add veloute + strain.

FISH/MEAT VELOUTE

Shrimp                                   Shrimp             -Fish veloute + fish fumet + cream+ shelled shrimp tails + shrimp butter.

Normande                              Normande     -Fish veloute + mushrooms + oyster liquor + fish fumet + finish with egg yolks, cream + shelled shrimp tails + shrimp butter.

Bercy                                      Bercy        -Allemande sauce + chopped shallots + white wine + meat glaze + butter, garnished with dices of marrow and chopped parsley.

4). TOMATO SAUCE

Bretonne                                Bretonne       -Tomato sauce + sauteed chopped onions + white wine reduced, strained + butter + chopped parsley.

Provencale                             Provencale     -Thin tomato sauce + sautéed sliced mushrooms + chopped parsley + garlic + tomato concasse + sugar.

Portugaise                              Portugaise      -Tomato sauce + white wine + tomato concasse + garlic.

Italienne                                 Italienne        -Tomato sauce + demi-glaze + chopped shallots + mushrooms +lean ham + fine herbs.

Barbecue        -Tomato sauce + ketchup + vinegar+ sugar.

5). HOLLANDAISE SAUCE

Mousseline                             Mousseline      - Hollandaise sauce mixed with stiffly whipped cream.

Maltaise                                  Maltaise           -Hollandaise sauce + zest + juice of blood oranges.

Noisette           -Hollandaise + nut brown cooked butter.

Bearnaise                               Bearnaise       -Hollandaise sauce + chopped tarragon + chervil.

Choron           -Bearnaise sauce + tomato puree.

Foyot             -Bearnaise sauce + meat glaze.

Mustard         -Hollandaise sauce + mustard

6). MAYONNAISE SAUCE

Chantilly                                Chantily         -Mayonnaise + lemon juice instead of vinegar, mixed with whipped cream.

Gribiche                                 Gribiche      -Mayonnaise + chopped hard boiled eggs + mustard, garnished with chopped gherkins, capers, chervil, tarragon.

Cambridge                             Cambridge   -Pounded hard-boiled eggs +anchovy fillets + capers +chervil+ tarragon + chives +vinegar + Cayenne pepper, addoil gradually as for mayonnaise, strain + chopped parsley.

Gloucester                              Gloucester    -Mayonnaise + sour cream + lemon juice + chopped fennel + Worcestershire sauce.

RemoulaRede                        Remoulade  -Mayonnaise + mustard garnished with capers, parsley, gherkins, chervil, tarragon and finished with anchovy essence.

Andalouse                              Andalouse     -Mayonnaise + tomato puree garnished with sweet capsicums.

Tartare                                   Tartare sauce-Mayonnaise + hard yolk of eggs, garnished with finely chopped onion and chives.

Green sauce                           Green sauce -Mayonnaise sauce mixed with puree of blanched herbs, spinach, water parsley, chervil, tarragon. Pass through very fine sieve.

Vincent                                   Vincent      -Half tartare sauce + half green sauce mixed together.

Thousand Island Dressing                                                    Thousand Island  -Mayonnaise + hard-boiled eggs + tomato ketchup + chopped gherkins + onions + pimentos, olives + paprika powder.

Cocktail                                  Cocktail     -Mayonnaise + tomato ketchup +Worcester sauce + tabasco +cream+ lemon juice.

Glaze- It is used to enhance the taste and flavour of sauce. The common glaze are- meat, chicken, and fish.

Brown stock is put in a large stew pan and reduced it. As the volume decreases, smaller stew pan should be used and heat lowered.  It should be strained through a muslin cloth. For testing, a wooden spoon should be dipped into reduce stock and if it has an even coat, then the glaze is ready. Strain in a bowl and keep it in a cold place. Same as fish and chicken glaze will be made.

REASONS FOR CURDLED HOLLANDAISE AND MAYONNAISE SAUCE

Hollandaise Sauce

·         Store for long time.

·         Cook on high temperature.

·         Un proper mixing.

·         Egg yolk too chill.

Mayonnaise Sauce

·         Chilled Ingredients.

·         Un proper mixing.

·      Egg yolk may too old.

·         Oil added rapidly.

HOW TO RECTIFY CURDLED HOLLANDAISE AND MAYONNAISE SAUCE

Hollandaise Sauce

·         Add a spoon full of hot water into the emulsion and whisk again or,

·         Whisk one egg yolk with a little warm water on a double boiler and add the curdled sauce in a thin stream to form an emulsion.

Mayonnaise Sauce

·         Add vinegar and whisk.

·         Add 1 tsp hot water and whisk.

·         Start with fresh egg yolk and add the curdled sauce in a thin stream to form an emulsion.

Difference between sauce and gravy

Sauce is a French word taken from the Latin Salus, meaning salt. No surprise given that salt is used to enhance the flavour of food. There are hundreds of sauces that fall under five main categories. They are béchamel (milk based) example Alfredo sauce, espagnole (brown stock based) example Mushroom sauce, veloute (white stock based) example Lyonnaise sauce, tomato (tomato based) example Marinara sauce and emulsified (hollandaise and mayonnaise) example Béarnaise sauce, tartar sauce. As you can see each of these sauce categories begin with a fundamental base. An all inclusive quality cook book will provide you with the ingredients and methods for which to prepare these sauces.

Gravy on the other hand takes its characteristic flavour from the fat and juices (drippings) of a roasted piece of meat. Once the roast is done and removed from the pan, skim off the majority of the fat. Place the roasting pan on the stove on medium heat. Sprinkle or dust with all-purpose flour and mix well to create what is known as roux. Add hot vegetable water or broth and simmer until gravy is smooth in texture and there is no longer an uncooked flour taste. Season with salt and pepper and you have the perfect gravy.

VEGETABLE AND FRUIT COOKERY

VEGETABLE :- Vegetables refers to all plants or parts of plants which can be eaten raw, cooked or preserved in some form. Vegetable are of great important in our diet and especially with regard to the present trend when the people are shifting towards the vegetarian side. These plays a very important role in our diet properly choose, properly cooked or raw. They make an invaluable contribution towards the supply of vitamins and minerals. Whenever possible, we should serve two vegetable in our diet also salads should be given the importance and hence must be made in both the meals. Generally vegetables have high water content, which ranges from 70­90%.

The various components of vegetables are:  

Carbohydrates: carbohydrates are present in the form of starch, sugar, cellulose & pectin substances. Starch is the chief nutrients of roots & tubers & the content of sugar is highest in beetroot, carrots & turnips.

-Cellulose is a source of roughage and become coarse & tough with age. 

-The vegetable contain minerals and vitamins. There are certain elements in the vegetable which do not have a food value but constitute an important part of vegetable.

-Flavouring substances: many volatile and non­volatile acids contributed to the flavour.         

-Pigments:- There are four pigments present in the vegetables as :- 1.   Chlorophyll: it is present in all green coloured vegetables such as cabbage, spinach, green beans, broccoli, peas etc.

2.   Carotenoids: it is present in orange coloured vegetables such as carrots, pumpkins, sweetpotatoes, corns, tomatoes etc

3.   Flavons: it is present in white coloured vegetables such as cauliflower, turnips, potatoes, onion etc.

4.   Anthocyanins: it is present in red & purple coloured vegetables. Beet roots, red cabbage (not tomatoes).

-Tannins: tannins are the complex organic compounds which are widely distributed in plants. They are responsible for astringent (sharp flavour) properties. Tannin is also responsible for discolouration in vegetable when they are cut or cooked.

NUTRITIONAL AND OTHER BENEFITS OBTAIN FROM VEGETABLES

Vegetables contains good amount of vitamins and minerals. All the green, yellow, orange vegetables are rich source of calcium, magnesium, potassium, vitamin B complex, Vitamin C, Vitamin A and Vitamin K. Vegetable contain soluble as well as insoluble dietary fibres like cellulose , gums, pectin etc. Green Beans: Low in calories and contain no saturated fat but good source of vitamin, minerals and fibres. Cauliflower: Low in calories, low in fat and no cholesterol. Bell Pepper: Fresh bell pepper is rich source of vitamin C and also contains good level of vitamin A. Beet Root: Low in calorie and fat but rich in dietary fibres, Vitamins and minerals. Bitter Gourd: Rich in dietary fibres, minerals, vitamins and anti oxidant. Carrot: Rich source of carotenes and vitamin A. Cucumber: Cucumber peel is a good source of dietary fibres that helps reduce constipation. It is very good source of potassium.   

Reasons for which vegetables are cooked :- To soften the product.          To improve the flavour.          To increase the digestibility.          To preserve the vegetables.

Effects of heat on vegetables :- Cooking is the application of heat to food in order to make it safer to eat, digestible and more palatable.

Cooking also change the appearance of the food. Heat breaks down the cellulose and the starches present; changes and blend flavour with in the food, and also destroy bacteria in order to make food digestible.         

 CARBOHYDRATES: CARAMELIZATION AND GELATINIZATION :- Both sugar and starch are carbohydrates. Caramelization is browning of sugars and Vegetables get softened by the gelatinization of the starch.

          VEGETABLE FIBERS: Fibers are a group of complex substances that give structure and firmness to plant. They cannot be digested. Heat break down the fibers. Alkali makes fiber softer but makes them mushy and loses essential vitamins.

          MINERALS, VITAMINS, PIGMENTS AND FLAVOUR COMPONENTS: Minerals dissolve in water during cooking. Vitamins and pigments may also be destroyed by prolonged cooking. Pigment and flavour may also determine whether the food is appetizing enough to eat or not.

          PROTEIN: When heat is applied to protein they become firm or they start to coagulate with heat. Protein becomes tough and dry when exposed to high heat.

VARIOUS RULES FOR VEGETABLE PREPARATION :-

         Do not let the vegetable soak in water unless necessary.          Wash the vegetables just before peeling.

         Cook or bake the vegetable in their skin.

         Use the minimum amount of liquid during boiling.

         Use the water in which the vegetables are boiled (pot liquor).          Use the correct cooking medium which can be acidic, alkali or neutral.

         Cut the vegetable as near to the cooking time as possible.          Serve the food as soon as it is ready for the service.

         Keep the oxygen away from the vitamin rich foods by covering them with water.

         For uniform doneness, cut into uniform sizes before cooking.          If vegetable must be cooked in advance, slightly undercook them, cool rapidly in cold water, drain and refrigerate, then reheat to order.

SHELF LIFE:                  

leafy vegetables                        :        2 days                    Rootvegetables                       :     2­3 days                            Tubers                                    :     1 week                            Bulbs                                      :         2 weeks

Suggestive cooking for different vegetables :-

         Boiling: this is the most common method of cooking vegetables. For green vegetables such as peas, French beans etc. The vegetables are put in boiling water and cooked for minimum time possible and refresh to avoid over cooking. Green vegetables while boiling should not be covered; otherwise their colour will be changed to different colour. Root vegetables should be placed in cold water and the pot should be covered by a lid, the water is brought to boiling point then simmered till the vegetables are cooked.

         Steaming: vegetables are cut into even size after washing and placed in steamer for cooking. This method helps in the maximum preservation of the nutrients and good for peas, beans, cauliflower, cabbage etc.

         Braising: vegetables after blanching are laid on aromatic to be braised such as cabbage, onion etc.

         Baking: vegetables baked in baking oven suitable for potatoes, tomatoes, pimentos etc.

         Roasting: some vegetables can be roasted. They are placed in a hot pan containing oil and condiments suitable for potatoes, onions and parsnips etc.

         Shallow frying: it is applicable for mushrooms, onions, pepper, tomatoes etc.

         Deep frying: vegetables such as potatoes, brinjals and onions can be deep fried but loss of vitamins takes place in this method of cooking.          Grilling: small potatoes can be grilled to give colour.

         Stewing: vegetables such as carrot, beans, peas etc. can be stewed.

How to retain the colour of green Vegetables :-

         Cook them uncovered to allow the vegetables volatile acid to escape. when the vegetables are cooked with a cover, the plants natural acid in leeched into the cooking liquid and is trapped there creating an acidic cooking medium. This combined with the heat present and destroys the pigment.

         Cook them quickly until just “Al Dente”, extended exposure to heat will destroy the colour.

         Steam Green vegetables whenever possible, this shorten the cooking time, allows for less acid build up and retain more colour.

ACTIONS OF ACIDS AND ALKALIS :-  Pigment or colour changes :

Salt or  neutral

Acidic medium

Alkali medium

Over cooking Flavons (white) Yellowish White Yellow Grey Anthocyanins (red) Faded red Bright red Blue Green Carotenoids  (orange, yellow) Fades Same Loss of nutrients Fades Chlorophyll  (green) Bright green Olive green Bright but mushy Faded olive green

CLASSIFICATION OF VEGETABLES :-

1.     CABBAGE FAMILY: Consist of vegetables used for their head, leaves or flowers also known as BRASSICA. E.g.  Cabbage, Brussels Sprouts, Cauliflower, Kohlrabi, Broccoli etc

2.     STALK VEGETABLE: Stalk vegetables are plant stems that are high in cellulose. E.g. Asparagus, Celery, Pok Choy etc.

3.      LEAFY VEGETABLES:  Leafy vegetables are plant grown specifically for their edible leaves. E.g. Spinach, Kale, Sorrel etc.

4.     SALAD GREENS: Endive, Lettuce.

5.     SEEDS, EDIBLE PODS AND YOUNG SHOOTS: This is a broad category of vegetables it includes Peas, Snow peas, All types of beans, Bean sprout, Corn etc.

6.     VEGETABLE FRUITS: Botanically vegetable fruit are considered fruits; however they are used in the kitchen as vegetables. E.g. Cucumber, Okra, Egg plant, Tomatoes, Pepper, Squash etc.      

7.     BULBS: Bulbs are stems holding a food reserve in the fleshy, overlapping which give shape to the vegetable. E.g. Onion, Scallion, Green onion, Shallots, Garlic etc.

8.     FUNGI: Mushrooms are not actually vegetables. They are an edible fungus. There are over 38,000 kinds of mushrooms. E.g. Mushroom, Morel, Truffles etc.

9.     TUBERS: These are formed from underground stems, which extend from the root of the plant. E.g. Artichoke, Carrot, Potatoes, Radish, Turnips etc.

10.  SPECIALTY VEGETABLES: There are vegetables which do not fit it any other category. E.g. Artichoke, Rhubarb etc.

STANDARD VEGETABLES CUTS :- 

Brunoise: vegetables are cut into fine dices.

Macedoine: vegetables are cut into ½ cm dices. Julienne: vegetables are cut into very thin strips (1 ½ ˝ long). 

Jardinière: vegetables are cut into baton shape (1˝ x ¼ ˝ x ¼ ˝).

Paysanne: vegetables are cut into small triangles, circles and squares­ uniform shape. Wedges: tomato or lemon cut into four or six pieces. 

Mirepoix: vegetables mixed (onions, carrots, celery, leeks) cut into rough dices.

Chiffonade: Shredded leafy vegetables.

Matignon: Evenly cut root vegetables. Chateau: Turning of vegetables into barrel shape.

FRUITS :-  Fruits are pulpy in character, often juicy & generally developed from flowers of plants & consist of a ripened seed or seeds with some edible tissues attached.

Types of fruit:-

Main characteristics :-

a). Stoned fruits :- These have got a single prominent seed present in the middle. Apricots, cherries, peaches, plums. Used in jams, pies, puddings and sweet dishes.

b). Hard fruits :- These have got hard layer of fibers & generally firm when touched. Apple, pears etc. Used in pastries, apples are used for garnishing meat dishes, salads, sauces etc., waldrof salad, apple sauce serve with roast meat etc.

c). Soft fruits :- These have got soft layer of fibers and should be handled very carefully. Black & red currants, berries etc. Generally stewed and are used in pies and puddings. Also used for jams.

d). Citrus fruits :- These are the fruits which have got acids present in them. Lemons, limes, oranges etc. They are not cooked usually but are generally used for flavouring and garnishing purposes. They are used to prepare fruit salad.

e). Tropical fruits These generally grow in the hot region where the temperatures might sore upto 50ºc Guavas, bananas, dates, figs, mango, papaya, pineapple, litchis etc. They are used to prepare fruit salad, flavouring and garnishing. Mango used for jams Other fruits These are the fruits which do not fall into any category given above. Cranberries, melons, grapes etc. They are used to prepare fruit salad, flavouring and garnishing.

STORAGE OF FRUITS :- Hard fruits such apples should be stored in boxes. Soft fruits such as strawberries, raspberries should be left in their own punnets. Stoned fruit are stored in a tray and must be individually placed so that any damaged fruit can be discarded easily. Peaches and citrus fruits are left in the delivery tray only. Bananas should not be stored in cool places because their skin turns black.

QUALITY AND PURCHASING POINTS FOR FRUITS :- 

         Soft fruits should not be damaged or overripe. Soft fruits should appear fresh without signs of mould, witting and shrinkage. Certain fruits are purchased on the basis of appearance such as strawberries, cherries etc.          Hard fruits should not be braised.

PRESERVATION OF FRUITS

         Drying: it is used for apples, apricots, bananas, figs, peaches, plums etc. (dried plums =prunes and dried grapes = currants, sultanas, raisins)          Canning: almost every fruit can be canned except apple which is packed in water.

         Bottling: it is mainly used for cherries bottled in maraschinos.          Candied fruits: fruits are put in the sugar syrup and then dried for e.g. Pineapples, oranges and lemon peel.

         Quick freezing: it is preserving food by dropping the temperature to 0º c for e.g. Strawberries, apples, plums, grapefruit etc.

         Sulphuring: it is carried out by spraying fruits with sulphur dioxide (so2) and blocking the contact with air for e.g. It is used for grapes before preparing wine.

         Jams and jellies: it is prepared by making a puree of boiled fruits along with flavouring.

 VARIOUS USES OF FRUITS :-

-Used for eating purpose.

- Used for carving or display, presentation purpose.

-Used as a refreshing drink as juices, shakes etc.

-Used as a rooms amenities in a 5star property as a flower basket.

-Used for a medicinal purpose.

SALADS :-

 A salad is derived from the italian word “insalata”. Insalata means a dish steeped in salt or brine solution. Salads are made up of meat, poultry, fish, game, shellfish, eggs, vegetables, fruit and milk products and normally serve cold. They can be made out of single ingredients or a combination of ingredients. Salads are generally served as an accompaniment to a dish but can be served as a course itself, an appetizer, sweet course (fruit salad).

THE SALAD COMPRISES OF FOUR PARTS

1.   The under liner or base: These are generally greens either shredded or in large pieces. The greens must be crisp and chilled. This can be done by storing them in refrigerator. E.g. Lettuce leaves, cabbage leaves, watercress leaves etc. The main purpose is to keep the plate or bowl from looking bare and to provide contrast colour to the other parts of the salad.

2.   The body or heart of the salad: This is the major component and can be made of one ingredient or a combination of ingredients. Ingredient should be fresh. Body constituents are the major portion of the salad. The salad gets its name from the ingredients that are used for the body. 

3.   Garnish: The purpose of garnish is to give eye appeal to the salad, though it often adds to the flavour as well. It should not be elaborate or dominate the salad. Garnish should harmonize with the rest of the salad ingredients and, be edible. Any of the fruit and vegetable, cut into simple, appropriate shapes, may be used as garnish.

4.   Dressings: These make the salad more appetizing, although diet conscious people today eat salad without dressing. Various kinds of dressing are used in the preparation of salad depending upon the kind of salad to be made. It adds flavour, provides food value, helps in digestion and improves palatability and appearance. A dressing is in a liquid or semi liquid form.

SALAD DRESSINGS

1.     Vinaigrette can be made by three ways:

         French: 3 parts oil 1 part vinegar, french mustard and seasoning.

         English: 1 part oil 2 parts vinegar, mustard and seasoning.          American: equal quantities of vinegar and oil, seasoning and sugar.

2.   Lemon dressing: same as vinaigrette dressing using lemon juice instead of vinegar.

3.   Acidulated cream: 3 parts cream 1 part vinegar and seasoning. 4.   Mayonnaise

Generally salads are of two types:-

1.   Simple salad: generally consist of a single kind of vegetable one or two ingredients are used for garnish. Examples:-

         Celery salad: chopped celery with vinaigrette.

         Cabbage salad: shredded

          Cabbage with vinaigrette.

           Cucumber salad: cucumber roundels with vinaigrette.

         Potato salad: dice/ roundels (parboiled)potato with vinaigrette.                mayonnaise.

         Tomato salad: sliced tomato with parsley and vinaigrette.

2.     Compound salad: These are elaborate salads consisting of more than one ingredient which are sub divided into four groups:

         Vegetable based: coleslaw, andalouse, nicoise, aida etc.          Poultry, game, meat based: carmen, hongroise etc.          Fish based: parisienne, fish cocktail etc.

         fruit based: creole, japonnaise, dalila, eve, waldrof etc.

                        EGG COOKERY

@  INTRODUCTION TO AN EGG COOKERY – Eggs are laid by female animals of many different species including birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Bird and reptile eggs consist of a protective eggshell, albumen (egg white), and vitellus (egg yolk) contained within various thin membranes. The most popular choice for egg consumption are chicken eggs. Other popular choices for egg consumption are duck, quail, roe, and caviar etc.

Egg yolks and whole eggs store significant amounts of protein and are widely used in cookery. The chicken is probably domesticated for its eggs from all over country.

Egg is a natural food product which is laid by the different birds. It has got various parts such as shell, white, yolk, albumen and various types of mineral salts, fat, cholesterol and a certain percentage of water. Egg shell is rich in calcium and full of pores. The shell part is also used in making of consommé soup for the purpose of collecting dirt in the form of scum and upto certain extent it also increases the percentage of calcium content in the soup. The white part acts as an emulsifying agent and use for raising cake batter. The white part is also used as a binding agent for various food preparation. The egg white has a good capacity to collect the impurities from the clear soup on the principle of coagulation. When the white coagulates, it turns to white and absorbs all the impurities and foreign particles which can be strained through a muslin cloth to clarify the soup.

  The yolk part of an egg is the rich source of protein and the white part is the rich source of mineral, salt, fat and cholesterol for the human body. The egg in the boiled form is eaten for the gain of various mineral salts, fat and vitamins to growing children. A boiled egg  is also used for garnishing various dishes.

     An egg is used in the preparation of various omelettes such as Spanish omelette, sunny side up, bulls eye etc. The word mayonnaise possibly was derived from moyeu, the medieval French word for the yolk, meaning center. The yolk in liquid form is used for making the sauces such as mayonnaise, hollandaise sauce etc. It is also used as a shining agent for greasing the baked product in the bakery.

   A boiled egg is thought to be a complete food as compare with fresh from the point of view of nutrition.

Varieties : - Birds eggs are a common food and one of the most versatile ingredients used in cooking. They are important in many branches of the modern food industry^.  The most commonly used bird eggs are those from the chicken. The largest bird eggs, from ostrich tend to be used only as special luxury food. Pheasant eggs and emu eggs are perfectly edible, but less widely available. Sometimes they are obtainable from farmers, poulterers, or luxury grocery stores.

Structure of the Egg

The egg is a biological structure intended by nature for reproduction. It protects and provides a complete diet for the developing embryo, and serves as the principal source of food for the first few days of the chick's life. The egg is also one of the most nutritious and versatile of

human foods.           

When the egg is freshly laid, the shell is completely filled. The air cell is formed by contraction of the contents during cooling and by the loss of moisture. A high-quality egg has only a small air cell.

Air cell

The larger end of the egg contains the air cell that forms when the contents of the egg cool down and contract after it is laid. A very fresh egg has a small air cell. As the size of the air cell increases, and the quality of the egg decreases. This provides a way of testing the age of it. A very old egg will actually float in the water and should not be eaten.

Shell - Egg shell colour is caused by pigment deposition during egg formation in the oviduct and can vary according to species and breed, from the more common white or brown to pink or speckled blue-green. In general, chicken breeds with white ear lobes lay white eggs, whereas chickens with red ear lobes lay brown eggs.

Membrane

The membrane is a clear film lining the eggshell, visible when one peels a boiled egg. Eggshell membrane is primarily composed of fibrous proteins such as collagen.

White

White is the common name for the clear liquid (also called the albumen contained within an egg. It forms around either fertilized or unfertilized yolks. The primary natural purpose of egg white is to protect the yolk and provide additional nutrition for the growth of the embryo.

Egg white consists primarily of about 90% water into which is dissolved 10% proteins (including albumins, mucoproteins, and globulins).

Yolk

The yolk in a newly laid egg is round and firm. As the yolk ages, it absorbs water from the albumen, which increases its size and causes it to stretch and weaken the vitelline membrane (the clear casing enclosing the yolk). The resulting effect is a flattened and enlarged yolk shape.

Yolk color is dependent on the diet of the hen; if the diet contains yellow/orange plant pigments known as xanthophylls, then they are deposited in the yolk, colouring it. Lutein is the most abundant pigment in egg yolk. A colourless diet can produce an almost colourless yolk. Yolk colour is, for example, enhanced if the diet includes products such as yellow corn and marigold petals.

The yolk is well-centered in the albumen and is surrounded by the vitelline membrane, which is colorless. The germinal disc, where fertilization takes place, is attached to the yolk. On opposite sides of the yolk are two, twisted, whitish cord-like objects known as chalazae. Their function is to support the yolk in the center of the albumen. Chalazae may vary in size and density, but do not affect either cooking performance or nutritional value.

A large portion of the albumen is thick. Surrounding the albumen are two shell membranes and the shell itself. The shell contains several thousand pores that permit the egg to "breathe."

Composition

An average-sized egg weights approximately 57 grams (about 2 ounces). Of this weight, the shell constitutes 11 percent; the white, 58 percent; and the yolk, 31 percent. Normally, these proportions do not vary appreciably for small or large eggs. The percentage composition of the edible portions is:

Percent	Water	Protein	Fat	Ash
Whole egg	74	13	11	1
White	88	11	..	..
Yolk	48	17	33	1

Essential nutrients

Eggs are especially valuable as a source of protein. In fact, egg protein is used as the standard against which the quality of other food proteins is measured. One egg contains about 6 to 7 grams of protein. People of all ages need adequate protein for building and repairing body tissues.

The fat in the yolk is so finely emulsified that it is digested easily, even by infants. The ratio of unsaturated to saturated fats is about 2 to 1. This is considered very desirable. Oleic acid is the main unsaturated fat. It has no effect on blood cholesterol. Eggs contain vitamin A, the B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin, and niacin), and vitamin D. All are necessary during childhood and adolescence for growth. Eggs also contain an abundant supply of minerals, such as iron and phosphorus, that are essential for building and maintaining strong, healthy bodies. But eggs are low in calcium (it is in the shell), and contain little or no vitamin C. It provides good nutrition and contains only about 80% calories.

                                               

       A brown and white chicken egg                                                    A cracked raw chicken egg

 

                                                      

@ SELECTION OF AN EGG WHILE PURCHASING – While selecting an eggs for the purpose of kitchen use, the following points should be considered as –

1).  Make up our mind for whether to buy country eggs or poultry eggs. This is because with the eggs vary in quality, cost and nutritional value.

2).  For the purchasing country eggs , it should be ensured that the sizes should not be abnormally big or small and the color is pinkish red. However, its size remains little small than the poultry egg.

3).  The egg should be of one origin, for example, it should not be a mixture of duck egg and hens egg. This is because the mixture of different origin will definitely hamper the original flavour of the dishes.

4).  While purchasing the poultry egg ensure about the hygienic condition which is used for the laying eggs.

5).  Any green or black patches develop on the shell, or the fungi or a rotten smell coming out of the eggs always shows the poor condition of the egg. Under such circumstances the order of the material should be discarded.

6).  Make sure the eggs should be kept in appropriate crates either made of hard paper or plastic in vertical position to minimise the breakage.

7). The chef should be careful enough for separating the eggs for considering various uses.

8).  The size of the eggs does not affect their quality, but it does affect their price. Eggs are tested for quality, then weighed and graded. When buying eggs the following points should be noted.

9). The eggshell should be clean, well shaped, strong and slightly rough.

@ USES OF AN EGG IN COOKERY–  Egg has got the following uses as are follows -

1.)    Uses of an eggs are enjoyed on their own, served as, however we want - as raw, boiled, fried, omelette etc. This helps to make many dishes.

2.)    They add colour and taste to several dishes.

3.)    Eggs help in – coagulation, leavening and emulsification, these are the three main function of an egg.

-          The process of coagulation thickens the custard and sauce. Coagulated egg protein helps in making cream puffs, cakes and breads. It binds together food as in meat loaf and burgers.

-          It also helps in clarifying as in soup.

-          Leavening of an egg gives the products a lighter texture that is desirable. Eggs are used for making baked goods such as sponges, cakes etc.

-           Egg yolk acts as a Emulsifying agent, because its protein wrap itself around tiny globules of oil. Yolk contains lecithin, which is an emulsifying agent.

-          Oil is added to the yolks to form a mayonnaise. The oil is beaten up into tiny droplets, then each drop is caught in an egg yolk protein film., so the droplets remains dispersed in a stable emulsion.

-          The emulsifying power of egg yolks also contributes to the crumbly quality of rich cake.

4.)    Eggs act as a binding agent to bind the food products. E.g- Scotch egg, pate preparation, in the mixture of kebab products etc.

5.)    It is used as the breakfast item in the form of boiled egg, half boiled egg, omelette of various kind, assorted fried eggs , poached egg etc.

6.)    It can be used as a important ingredient in making of sandwiches, burgers  in the form of spreading, fried eggs etc.

7.)    It can be used as an accompaniment in the various main dishes in the form of an egg curry for example- egg masala, stuffed egg etc.

8.)    It is also used in the field of experimental cookery as – making of tandoori egg, anda samosa, egg fried by wrapping with mutton or chicken keema etc.

9.)    It can be used as a greasing agent in bakery to create shining effect on a finished baked product.

10.)                        It is used as a clarifying agent in making various egg based cocktails and also in making of mother sauces in continental cookery.

11.)                        It is used for making various types of appetisers as oeuf farci, oeuf mayo, in canapé, sandwiches, burger etc.

@ DIFFERENT METHODS OF COOKING AN EGG AND ITS CULINARY PROPERTIES– The following method is used to cook the eggs are as follows-

1). Boiling- Here, the whole egg is placed in the normal water. A little white vinegar and salt is added and put on flame for boiling. After 8-10 minutes, eggs are taken out, remove the shell and ready to eat as  ,soft-boiled  eggs with potato galettes.

2). Shallow frying – Here, the egg is fried by breaking the yolk part, add the seasoning in last as a fried chicken egg, "sunny side up"

3). Doubled fried egg, Scrambled egg, Poached egg, Omelette, Spanish omelette etc.

4). Chicken eggs are widely used in many types of dishes, both sweet and savory, including many baked goods. Some of the most common preparation methods include scrambled, fried, hard-boiled, soft-boiled, omelettes and pickled. They can also be eaten raw.

 5). The protein content in raw eggs is only 51% bioavailable, whereas that of a cooked egg is nearer 91% bioavailable, meaning the protein of cooked eggs is nearly twice as absorbable as the protein from raw eggs.

6). The albumen or egg white, contains protein, but little or no fat, and can be used in cooking separately from the yolk. The proteins in egg white allow it to form foams and aerated dishes. Egg whites may be aerated or whipped to a light, fluffy consistency, and are often used in desserts such as meringues and mousse.

7). When eggs are broken, there should be a high proportion of thick white to thin white. If an egg is kept too long, the thick gradually changes into thin white, and water passes from white into the yolk. The yolk should be firm, round and of good even colour.

8). Ground egg shells are sometimes used as a food additive to deliver calcium^.

9). Eggs contain multiple proteins which gel at different temperatures within the yolk and the white, and the temperature determines the gelling time. Egg yolk begins to gelify, or solidify, when it reaches temperatures between about 60 and 70 °C (140 and 158 °F). Egg white gels at slightly higher temperatures, about 60 to 80 °C (140 to 176 °F).

STORAGE :-

-Careful storage of edible eggs is extremely important, otherwise it can cause severe health problem. Store in a cool but not too dry place, where the humidity of air and the amount of carbon dioxide presence are controlled.

-  Make sure the eggs should be kept in appropriate crates either made of hard paper or plastic in vertical position to minimise the breakage.

-  Refrigerating the eggs to prevent the growth of Salmonella bacteria.

-  Refrigeration also preserves the taste and texture. However, uncracked eggs can be left unrefrigerated for several months without spoiling^.

-  Eggs should not be kept near the strong smelling foods, such as  raw onion, fish, meat,  cheese etc, because eggs shell are porous and can absorb any strong odours quickly.

-  Cracked egg should not be use once broken, yolk should be use within 24hours and white part within 6-12 hours.

-  Egg dishes should be consumed as soon as possible after preparation or, if not, immediate use refrigerator.

-  Stock should be rotated as FIFO(First in first out) ways.

-  A dessert containing raw eggs such as mousse should be eaten within 24 hours.

COMMODITIES

(i) Shortenings (Fats and Oils) :-  Shortenings mean the fat and oils which are used for tenderizing the food products. They consist of fatty acids & glycerol, also known as triglycerides.

                                Role of shortenings : It performs the following roles

1.      It increases palatability : It mixes the main ingredients while cooking and helps to increase the taste.

2.      It helps to retain the shape : It mixes up with the ingredients , helps to retain the main structure which further holds the shape of the food products.

3.      It maintains the glossiness : Shortenings have got the characteristic features of smearing the fats and oils on the body of the raw materials and helps to maintain the glossiness.

4.      It helps in mastication of food : In the presence of shortening chewing of food is easy and it’s biological absorption by the human body is possible.

Varieties of shortenings : The shortenings have got various varieties as mentioned below :

1.      Oil : It is obtained from vegetable sources including mustard seeds, sunflower seeds, soyabean, peanuts etc. This is also obtained from hydrogenated fat (vanaspati).

2.      Fats : This is obtained from the vegetable sources in the form of solid mass. It includes dalda, vanaspati, margarine etc.

3.      From dairy product : Few fats are also obtained from milk and milk products, for example cheese, butter etc.

4.      Animal fat : Here, the fat from the body of the animal is collected at the time of slaughtering. The tissues containing fat are collected from the animal body and is subjected to heat . The liquid obtained is refined further to extract the fat and is used for cooking purpose. For example-  Lard.

Fats and Oils – Types and Variety

The fats and oils are extracted and obtained in in the following varieties:

1.      Extracted from seeds : Mustard seed oil, cotton seed oil, sunflower seed oil, til seeds oil etc.

2.      Extracted from beans : Soya bean oil, pea nut oil, ground nut oil, almond oil etc.

3.      Extracted from fruit and fruit products : Olive oil.

4.      Extracted from whole spice : Clove oil.

5.      Extracted from sea animal : Cod liver oil, sea fish oil.

Types of fats and oils :

1.      Hydrogenated fat : Extracted from vegetable products and mixed in preservative for a long time.

2.      Ghee : Extracted from milk products.

3.      Butter : Extracted from milk products.

4.      Dalda : Unsaturated fat which is economic.

5.      Lard : Extracted from the animal tissue and flesh. The best examples include pig meat, cow meat, goat meat, ram meat, sheep meat etc.

Advantages and disadvantages of using various shortenings :

Advantages :

1.      It increases the lubricating effect on the food products.

2.      It helps in obtaining the crispiness.

3.      It gives the structure to the body of the food product.

4.      It gives glaze to the product.

5.      It enhances taste and nutrition.

6.      Proper mixing of the fat gives rise to elasticity that improves the final shape of the product.

7.      Varieties of dishes can be made.

8.      Dishes could not be complete without of it.

Disadvantages :

1.      It increases the chances of deposition of cholesterol in blood vessels.

2.      The use of uncreamed fat gives the possibility of lump formation which further affect on the texture of the final product.

3.      Presence of fat and oil increase the chances of over browning of the ingredients.

4.      Excess use of fats increases the chances of melting the final products with an oily sensation.

(ii) Raising agents

Classification of raising agents :

The raising agents are used for the purpose of bringing a fluffiness in the food products to increase volume either by using biological products or through mechanical process of incorporation of air. In case of biological agent yeast is the only product that is used for this purpose. Leavening is the production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to increase volume and to produce shape and texture.

                   The raising agents can be classified in the following manner :

1.   Biological agent : Fermentation is the process by which yeast acts on carbohydrates and changes them into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol. This release of gas produces the leavening action in yeast products. The alcohol evaporates completely during and immediately after baking. Yeast is a microscopic plant. As a living organism, it is sensitive to temperatures.It is available in dry and wet form and is used for making bakery products. Dry forms which look like mustard seeds require enough time for fermentation.

2.      Chemical agent : This includes the use of chemical salt such as baking powder, baking soda, cooking soda etc. These are used by mixing process at the raw stage of the food item. It’s function is to react with the ingredients chemically and to release the carbon dioxide gas which influences the raising effect of the final products.

3.      Mechanical agent : It includes the process of beating by using ‘whisk’ or ‘balloon beater’ in one direction. The concept behind beating is to increase the emulsification process through incorporation of air. Here, the care should be taken about the circular motion applied. In case the direction of the motion changes, every possibility remains to suffer from a major collapse of the food item at any point of time of food preparation. For example, making of whipped cream, mayonnaise sauce, hollandaise sauce, tartare sauce, cocktail sauce etc.

4.    Rubbing process : The ingredients are rubbed in a specific direction to give the effect of aeration.

5.    Using of souring agents : The raising effect can also be given by using some souring agents like curd, tamarind etc.

6.    Self raising method : The ingredients may be allowed to ferment on their own and thus the raising effect can also be given to the food products like the dough of malpua, dosa, vada, idly, imarti, jalebi etc.

Role of raising agents :

1.      Helps to increase the volume of the food products.

2.      Makes the final food products soft.

3.      Creates a look to the final food products.

4.      Makes the food items edible.

5.      Helps in the incorporation of air in every part of the food materials.

Actions and Reactions :

Actions :

1.    It creates fermentation by the process of chemical reaction.

2.    It releases carbon dioxide gas with the food products.

3.      It creates the carbon dioxide gas and fills in the gaps of the items to raise the final products.

4.      It creates  softness to the food products.

Reactions :

1.    It reacts with various materials and sometimes gives rise to harmful effects on human body.

Thickening agents – These are the food items which have the maximum composition of starch or carbohydrate or both. It is used in cookery for the purpose of increasing the viscosity or the thickness.

Classification of thickening agents :

1.    Powder form : All the flours which have a binding capacity, use in bakery and kitchen.

2.    Vegetable form : The vegetables which have a rich concentration of carbohydrate  used as a thickening agent.

3.    Starch of boiled rice :The liquid which is left after straining the boiled rice is used as a thickening agent.

4.    Various fruits : Boiled and mashed pulp are also used as a thickening agent, such as apple, pears, custard apple, ripe banana  etc.

5.    Animal blood : Here, the blood of the animals is also used sometimes to create a thickening effect.

6.    Beaten egg : The beaten egg is also used to create a thickening effect.

Role of thickening agents :

1.    It mixes the moisture with the food items and increases the thickness upto the desired level. It also increases the density of the liquid food.

2.    It increases the nutritional value of the food items.

3.    It increases the taste of the food items.

Sugar :

Sugar is a big source of carbohydrate and act as a supplier of energy to the human body. It can be obtained from sugar cane, beet root, sweet potato etc. However, the quality of sugar can also be substituted by utilising jaggery (i.e., ‘gur’ in local term).

Importance of sugar :- Sugar plays the following roles in food production as follows-

1.    It imparts taste and sweetness.

2.    It helps in icing of cakes and pastry.

3.    It caramelizes and gives colour to the food products.

4.    It helps in coating many food products by creating thin brown layer on the finished food items.

5.    It helps in making syrup of various consistencies which are needed for finishing various regional sweet dishes.

6.    It helps in fermentation process while bread making.

7.    It helps in the formation of froth by mixing with cream, egg white, egg yolk etc.

Types of sugar :

In the field of food production the following types of sugar is found :

1.    Granular sugar : It is available in small grain forms. It is used for the purpose of making powder, caramelisation and sweetening effect.

2.    Castor sugar : It is a refined version of the granular sugar and available in packet form at a higher cost. It’s main function is increasing sweetness by sprinkling.

3.    Cube sugar : It is available in cube shape within packets. It’s main function is to maintain accuracy to tea/coffee by helping the waiter to have a perfect portion control.

4.    Brown sugar : It is available in the market in granular form with light brown colour. It’s main function is to increase caramel effect on the final food product. However, it gives a bitter taste when use more.

5.    Cane sugar :It is available in the form of a chunk and used as a health tonic for the children. This is also used along with fennel seeds at the end of a meal to refresh the mouth.

6.    Icing sugar : It is available in powder form and used for the purpose of icing along with other ingredients in cake and pastry making.

Cooking of sugar :

The sugar is cooked either with the main food items or alone. While cooking with other items it does not require sufficient moisture. However, it can mix up with other ingredients to increase the sweetness or the caramel effect. Whereas, while the sugar is cooked alone, sufficient water is added to avoid burning. This is visible at the time of making syrup. The syrup can be made by subjecting the sugar to heat in three forms, i.e., one string consistency, two string consistency and multi string consistency. The thin syrup is also very much used for the purpose of soaking the Indian sweets. In case of few continental dishes sugar granules are put into the mould and caramelised.